1.1       Single-Chip Versus Multiple-Chip Smart Card Microcomputers

There are advantages and disadvantages to both the muliple-chip and the single-chip
smart card. A multiple-chip smart card may be less expensive to produce, since it can
incorporate several easily-attainable, low-cost IC chips. A single-chip smart card, on the
other hand, requires a more complex, specialized chip, carefully designed to accomodate
all the required circuitry for the microprocessor, memory and I/O. [MCIV 85, p. 155]
In addition, a multiple-chip smart card may be able to perform more functions and store more information than a single-chip smart card. However, including more than one chip in a smart card presents some difficult problems.

During the course of its use, a plastic credit-card-sized device is subject to a great deal
of bending and twisting. To be reliable, a smart card IC chip must be placed in one of the few areas of a card where the effects of such stress are minimal. If several chips are to be contained in a smart card, some of them may have to be placed in the higher-stress areas of the card, where they may be more likely to break and cease to function. The connecting "wires" which are needed to link several chips together may be similarly susceptible to damage.

In addition to the increased chances of breakage, a multiple-chip smart card may
present a risk in terms of the security of the information to be stored within the card. It may be possible for an adversary to "eavesdrop" on the chip-to-chip connections and extract secret data from a multiple-chip smart card. Since it contains no chip-to-chip connections,the single-chip smart card is generally considered more reliable and more secure than the multiple-chip card. For these reasons, the single-chip smart card is currently preferred for many applications.

Although it has some limitations, a single-chip smart card can perform all the functions
of a microcomputer. The following sections describe the components of a microcomputer microprocessor, memory, and input/output—as they may be implemented in a single smart card IC chip.


1.2       The Smart Card Microprocessor

The microprocessor is the component which makes a smart card "smart" and distinguishes it from cards designed to simply store data. The microprocessor and its associated operating system enables the smart card to "make its own decisions" concerning where it will store data in its memories and under what circumstances it will transfer information through its input/output interface. The microprocessor itself consists of three major components: the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), the control unit, and the bus.

- The ALU provides the basic logic and arithmetic functions for the microcomputer. It
also contains small storage spaces, called registers, which are needed for performing
computations, such as addition or multiplication. The ALU interacts with the memory
and the input/output in order to coordinate the operations of the microcomputer.

- The control unit assures that the timing of events in the various parts of the microcomputer
are coordinated.

- The bus provides a link between different parts of the smart card microcomputer.
There are many possible configurations for the bus, which may be comprised of several segments. For example, one segment of the bus may link two registers in the ALU together, another may link the input/output interface to the microprocessor, and
still another may link the microprocessor to the main memory of the smart card.
In general, smart cards are designed such that the bus does not directly connect
the input/output to the main memory. The microprocessor may be linked between
the input/output and the main memory in order to "stand guard" over information
entering and leaving the memory.,


1.3       Smart Card Memories

A smart card may contain several kinds of memory for storing data and programs.
Virtually all memories currently used in smart card microcomputers are manufactured from semiconductor materials. Semiconductor memories consist of matrices of cells formed by transistors to store information. By varying the composition and cell configurations of semiconductor materials, memories with differing characteristics can be produced. Four types of semiconductor memory used in smart cards are discussed below.

Random Access Memory (RAM) - Smart card RAM is generally manufactured from
metal-oxide-semiconductor silicon. Any information stored in RAM can be accessed
in a fixed amount of time regardless of the information's position within the memory.
Access time to information in RAM is in the range of tens to hundreds of nanoseconds
(billionths of a second). Smart card RAM is usually volatile in nature (that is, it will
lose its stored information immediately if power to the memory is removed). RAM,
the fastest type of memory, is often used as a "scratch pad," buffer, or other type of
temporary storage.

Read Only Memory (ROM) - Smart card ROM is a semiconductor memory which is
nonvolatile (i.e., its stored information is retained indefinitely without a continuous
power supply to the memory). Smart card ROM is typically made from a section
of semiconductor material in which a series of memory cells have been permanently
burned or fused, in a particular pattern which forms the underlying structure for a program.In this programming process, which is completed at the ROM manufacturer's
plant, the ROM is often masked in such a way that it cannot be read or altered by
the user. Semiconductor ROM is typically used for storing the smart card's general
operating system programs |MCIV 85, p. 154] (such as the program needed to start
the smart card when its power is turned on).


Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM) - Smart card EPROM is a
nonvolatile semiconductor memory which can be initially programmed at the user's
facility rather than at the ROM manufacturer's plant. Data and programs can be
loaded into the smart card EPROM via a smart card reader/writer device; the transfer
of information is controlled by the smart card's microprocessor. When it is used
in other types of computers, EPROM can be erased (by exposure to ultraviolet light)
and reprogrammed. However, EPROM that is used in smart cards is typically manufactured in such a way that it is permanently shielded and cannot be erased or altered. This shielding is intended to increase the security of the smart card, by preventing unauthorized modification of data stored in the EPROM.* EPROM may be used in a smart card to permanently store an audit trail, a complete history of the operation of the card. EPROM provides much greater storage density than other memories such as EEPROM (see below). However, because data can only be appended to and not erased from smart card EPROM, it may eventually become full, and thus the smart card will "expire."

Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM) - Smart card
EEPROM is a nonvolatile semiconductor memory which can be electrically erased
and reprogrammed via a reader/writer device at the user's facility. EEPROM can
be used for storing programs and data which may need to be modified periodically.
Since EEPROM can be erased, a smart card containing EEPROM will not "expire"
because its memory is filled up. Currently, however, EEPROM memories have less
storage capacity, require larger circuitry, and cost more than other types of memory.
In addition, EEPROM may not be appropriate for storing an audit trail.

A smart card microcomputer chip usually contains both RAM and ROM, for the
card's temporary working memory and for the operating system programs, and either
EPROM or EEPROM as a large storage memory area. Using current techniques. EPROM and EEPROM cannot be placed together on the same IC chip. Thus, for single-chip smart cards, either EPROM or EEPROM must be chosen, depending on the intended application for the smart card. (Currently, few single-chip smart cards contain EEPROM.) In order to utilize both EPROM and EEPROM memories, some maYiufacturers place separate EEPROM chips in the smart card together with a microcomputer chip containing EPROM. It remains to be seen whether this endeavor is as reliable, secure, and costeffective as the single-chip approach.



To access the computer system, an employee must insert his smart card into a reader/
writer device and enter his unique PIN via the reader/writer's keyboard. The smart
card's microcomputer chip then performs the same one-way transformation on the
entered PIN and compares it with the stored PIN. Because this comparison is done
completely inside the smart card's microcomputer chip, the employee's PIN is never
written into the open working memory of the host computer, which might be exposed
to modification or monitoring by an adversary.

If the smart card determines that the two PINs match, information is exchanged
between the smart card and the host computer to determine the employee's identity
and which files within the host the employee is entitled to access. The employee can
then read and update only those files via a terminal connected to the host computer.
A log of the employee's actions within the computer system can be maintained within
the smart card's memories.


1.0       SMART CARD INTEGRATED CIRCUIT TECHNOLOGIES

The smart card's ability to perform the computations and other functions needed in
security applications depends on the development of the smart card microcomputer, which,in turn, is inherently tied to the progress of integrated circuit technologies. This chapterdiscusses some of the concepts and considerations involved in the production of integrated circuits.


1.1       Integrated Circuits (ICs)

Integrated circuits (ICs) are electronic circuits, of varying complexity, which are
formed on individual chips of silicon (or other semiconductor* material). Computers and digital instruments are filled with ICs, which are small and can be designed to quickly perform complicated functions.

The capability of an IC depends on the amount of circuitry it contains, a quantity
often described in terms of transistor density. With current IC technology, close to 400
transistors can be formed in a space as small as the cross-section of a human hair, which is approximately 100 microns (millionths of a meter) in diameter. With this transistor density, ICs containing about 50,000 transistors can be produced; transistors are placed on an integrated circuit and interconnected with "wires" 1 micron in width. If this "wire" width were reduced to half a micron, 1500 transistors could be placed in a 100-micron cross-sectional area. Cutting the dimensions in half again would make each transistor the size of a large virus. With quarter micron "wire" widths, 4500 transistors could be placed in the cross-sectional area of a hair. It is predicted that the latter capability may be reached by 1995 .


Some sources believe that with the increases in transistor density, the billion-transistor
IC will become a definite reality by the year 2000. [COLE 87, p. 81] If an estimated
200,000 transistors are needed to store and handle one page of text, a billion-transistor
IC could store several thousand printed pages. Any of these pages could be retrieved in arandom fashion from such a supercircuit and transmitted between two computers in abouta second.
It is important to realize, however, that as the density of transistors in ICs increases,
so does the difficulty of producing ICs that function correctly. If a single transistor in any part of an IC fails, the operation of the entire IC chip may be impaired.

1.2       Limitations of IC Technology
Simply stated, the goal of IC technology is to produce reliable ICs which are reduced in size and yet increased in capability. The extent to which this goal can be attained is limited by the physical characteristics of the materials used for both the substrate (the foundation for the IC) and the actual circuitry to be placed on that substrate. All silicon materials used to produce IC substrates have a certain defect density. The IC fabrication engineer must work within the limitation that, in a given section of silicon substrate material, there will be a certain number of defects. If this section is cut into a small number of large chips, a high percentage of the chips produced will contain one or more defects. However,if the section is cut into a large number of small chips, a much lower percentage of the chips produced will contain defects. The chips produced must be both large enough to accomodate the circuitry to be placed on them and yet small enough that a reasonable yield of usable chips can be produced from each section of silicon substrate.In order to increase the amount of circuitry which can be placed on a small silicon chip,the circuits themselves are made smaller. Much research is devoted to methods for reducing linewidth, the amount of space needed by an interconnecting "wire." Some sources predict that the conventional method (optical lithography) can be pushed to produce circuits with 0.1 micron linewidths. This would constitute a 5 to 10 times improvement over current capabilities. [COLE 87, p. 83] The smaller reliable circuitry can be made, the more functions each chip can support.In addition to reducing linewidth, current research efforts are aiming towards the production of application-specific ICs (ASICs), partially customized ICs which are fabricated according to standard conventions. The increase in IC functionality, made possible by reduced linewidth and custom fabrication, will be of primary importance in the development of microcomputer chips such as those used in smart cards.

2.0       THE SMART CARD MICROCOMPUTER

The word microcomputer is typically used to mean simply a "small" computer. Within
the category of "small" computers there is a very wide variety of devices, ranging from
a personal computer (which may be equipped with such peripherals as a monitor, a keyboard,one or more floppy disk drives, a hard disk, a mouse, a modem, a printer, and/or others) down to an IC chip no larger than an eraser on the end of a pencil. Microcomputers may diff"er greatly in their costs, capabilities, and intended applications. In general,

however, each microcomputer is comprised of three basic components: a microprocessor
(for managing information), memory (for storing information), and an input/output (I/O)interface (for transmitting and receiving information).


The desktop personal computer is one of the most common types of microcomputer.
A personal computer may contain dozens of integrated circuits; usually one IC forms
the microprocessor, a large number of ICs serve as memory, and a few ICs control the
input/output interface. Because they are so small and because they are designed for
different applications, smart cards do not contain all of the integrated circuitry that is
housed within personal computers. Smart cards do, however, contain all three of the basic microcomputer components.

Researchers and manufacturers have developed many different designs for the tiny
microcomputer to be placed in a smart card. A fundamental issue in smart card design
is whether the microcomputer should be restricted to a single IC chip or distributed over several chips.


ABSTRACT

A smart card is a credit-card-sized device containing one or more integrated circuit chips, which perform the functions of a microprocessor, memory, and an input/output interface. Smart cards, and other related devices, may be used to provide an increased level of security in applications requiring controlled access to sensitive information. This
publication describes the basic components of a smart card, and the goals and obstacles of smart card application development. Possible roles for smart cards in modern computer security systems and research conducted at the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) in the area of smart card access control systems are discussed. A forecast is made for the characteristics and applications of future smart cards and related devices. An overview of current standards activities for smart cards is given in an appendix.

Key words: Access control; authentication,- biometrics; computer security; cryptography;Data Encryption Standard (DES); electrically erasable programmable read only memory(EEPROM); erasable programmable read only memory (EPROM); integrated circuit card;microcomputer; reader/writer device; smart card; token.



INTRODUCTION

With microscopic electronic circuits placed inside credit-card-sized plastic carriers, smart cards offer the possibility that someday most individuals will carry their own computers in their pockets. Smart cards may greatly facilitate a wide range of information processing activities: Applied in banking, telephone services, medical records systems,and other areas, smart cards can provide users with both a secure medium for storing and carrying personal information and a means for accessing resources in a network of computers.
As the use of computers and computer networks has grown to encompass more andmore of everyday life, the demand for effective computer security strategies has become more urgent. Smart cards, which are capable of both securely storing and processing data,may play a key role in improving the security of many computer systems.

Overview and Scope of this Document

This document describes the basic components of a smart card and provides background information on the underlying integrated circuit technologies. The capabilities of a smart card are discussed, with emphasis on the use of the smart card in computer security applications. Research conducted at the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) on smart card access control techniques is described. A forecast is made on expected developments in smart card technology. The appendix outlines the major U.S. and international groups involved in the development of standards for smart cards and related devices.

This document is intended to provide the reader with a general understanding of the use of smart card technology in computer access control. Several factors which must be considered in examining the security requirements of a computer system are discussed. It should be recognized, however, that smart cards and access control techniques are just one part of an overall computer security program. In accordance with the Brooks Act (P.L.89-306) and the Computer Security Act of 1987 (P.L. 100-235), NBS develops guidelines,technology forecasts, and other documents to provide information on a wide range of computer security topics. Information about these documents is available in NBS Publications List 91, "Computer Security Publications."

The Definition of a Smart Card

The term "smart card" has been used as a label for a wide variety of hand-held plastic devices containing mechanisms for storing and/or processing information. There is much debate over exactly what capabilities and characteristics a device must have in order to be considered a smart card. One source states that a smart card is implemented "in a piece of plastic the size of a credit card" and that "each smart card contains its own central processing unit [which is] essentially a small computer." [MCIV 85, p. 152] Another source, with a broader definition, suggests that a smart card "consists of an integrated circuit chip or chips packaged in a convenient form to be carried on one's person." [SVGL 85, p. l] With the latter definition, the category of smart cards includes integrated circuit data storage cards and key-shaped devices, which may not have any computational powers.Magnetic stripe and optical laser storage cards have also sometimes been referred to as smart cards, because they have data storage capacity.


As researchers and manufacturers struggle to develop and distribute products in step with the latest technological advances, confusion over the terminology of new devices arises.For purposes of discussion, this document will use the following definition of a smart card:

A smart card is a credit-card-sized device containing one or more integrated circuit chips, which perform the functions of a microprocessor, memory, and an input/output interface.Devices which are not of standard credit card size (i.e., plastic keys and dogtags, or cards which are thicker than the standard credit card), but which otherwise conform to this definition, will be referred to in this document as "smart tokens."


Smart Cards and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) develops voluntary internationalstandards in many scientific, technological, and economic fields. ISO has not defined or produced standards for any devices specifically labelled as "smart cards."

ISO is, however, actively involved in the development of standards for what ISO calls an integrated circuit card (ICC). Some of the fundamental characteristics of an ISO ICC are:

- The ICC contains one or more integrated circuits.
- The length (3.370 inches), width (2.125 inches), and thickness (0.030 inches) of an ICC are the same as the dimensions of a standard credit card.

- The ICC allows spaces on the surface of the card for magnetic stripe and embossed data storage, in order to allow compatibility with existing technologies.

(An outline of ISO integrated circuit card standards activities is given in the appendix.)

Smart cards, as defined in this document, are similar to ISO IC cards except that
1) smart cards do not necessarily have magnetic stripe and embossing areas, and
 2) smart cards must have processing capability. The ability of the smart card to process information, and not simply store it, is of vital importance in applications in which the security of sensitive information must be maintained. The following section presents a simple example of how a smart card system can be used to protect sensititive data.

Security in a Generalized Smart Card System

A generalized smart card system contains a smart card, a smart card reader/writer device, a terminal, a host computer, and the connections necessary to interface these components On a superficial level, a smart card system resembles conventional data storage card systems, such as automated teller machine (ATM) systems which use magnetic stripe cards.
However, because smart cards have computing powers and greater capacity for protected data storage, smart card systems can provide increased flexibility and security in many applications.

For example, a company that has proprietary information stored in its main computer could use a smart card system to maintain and protect this sensitive data in a scenario such as the following:

A smart card is issued to each employee who has a need to access the computer system. Each employee's card is programmed with unique information, such as a personal identification number (PIN). The smart card's microcomputer performs a secret one-way transformation* on this PIN, to render it unreadable, and then stores the transformed PIN in a secret part of its memory.



Personal Computer
A personal computer is a general-purpose computer whose size, capabilities, and original sale price make it useful for individuals, and is intended to be operated directly by an end- user with no intervening computer time-sharing models that allowed larger, more expensive minicomputer and mainframe systems to be used
by many people, usually at the same time.
Software applications for most personal computers include, but are not limited to, word processing, spreadsheets,databases, webbrowsers and e-mail clients, digital
media playback, games and many personal productivityand special-purpose software applications.Modern personal computers often have connections to the Internet, allowing access to the World Wide Web and a wide range of other resources. Personal computers may be connected to a local area network(LAN), either by a cable or a wireless connection. A personal computer may be a laptop computer or a desktop computer running an operating system such as Windows, Linux (and the various operating systems based on it), or Macintosh OS.
Early computer owners usually had to write their own programs to do anything useful with the machines, which even did not include an operating system. The very earliest microcomputers, equipped with a front panel,required hand-loading of a bootstrap program to load programs from external storage (paper tape, cassettes, or eventually diskettes). Before very long , automatic booting from permanent read-only memory became universal. Today's users have access to a wide range of commercial software, freeware and free and open-source software, which are provided in ready-to-run or ready-to-compile form. Software for personal computers, such as applications and video games, are typically developed and distributed independently from the hardware or OS manufacturers, whereas software for many mobile phones and other portable systems is approved and
distributed through a centralized online store.

Since the early 1990s, Microsoft operating systems and Intel hardware dominated much of the personal computer market, first with MS-DOS and then with Windows. Popular alternatives to Microsoft's Windows operating systems include Apple's OS X and free open-source Unix- like operating systems such as Linux and
BSD. AMD provides the major alternative to Intel's processors. ARM architecture processors now outnumber Intel's (and compatibles) in smart phones and tablets , that are also personal computers, outnumbering the traditional kind.

WORKING
Step1: user enters the password, if password entered is correct then the system starts else he is prompted to reenter the password.
Step2: If sensor sense any change or sense any motion, then an intrusion is detected. Else there is no intrusion.
Step3: If intrusion is detected, then relay triggered, stepper motor rotates the camera, it start recording and an email is sent to user

ADVANTAGES
Invisible Eye Security system solves many of the problems faced by the multiple camera based security system at an easily affordable cost.

The biggest advantage is that we can avoid having to wade through hours of footage of empty rooms.

One can also avoid having to install multiple cameras to cover a single room.
DIS ADVANTAGES
we have to deactivate the system while your shop is open
If the owner is out of network then message will not be sent.
APPLICATIONS
Use for home security systems.
Office security system
Bank security system
CONCLUSION
It is very secure security system as compare to present security system.
it solves many of the problems faced by the multiple Camera based security system.so we can use Invisible eyes instead of present security system.



GSM  MODEM
➢ It is a special type of modem which accepts SIM card.
➢ These GSM modem are more frequently used to provide mobile connectivity.
➢ Many of them can also be used for sending and receiving SMS.
➢ In this case we are using GSM modem for sending the message only.
GSM was intended to be a secure wireless system. It has considered the user authentication using a preshared key and challenge-response, and over-the-air encryption. However, GSM is vulnerable to different types of attack, each of them aimed at a different part of the network.

The development of UMTS introduces an optional Universal Subscriber Identity Module (USIM), that uses a longer authentication key to give greater security, as well as mutually authenticating the network and the user, whereas GSM only authenticates the user to the network (and not vice versa). The security model therefore offers confidentiality and authentication, but limited authorization capabilities, and no non- repudiation.
GSM uses several cryptographic algorithms for security. The A5/1, A5/2, and A5/3 stream ciphers are used for ensuring over-the-air voice privacy. A5/1 was developed first and is a stronger algorithm used within Europe and the United States; A5/2 is weaker and used in other countries. Serious weaknesses have been found in both algorithms: it is possible to break A5/2 in real-time with a ciphertextonly attack, and in January 2007, The Hacker's Choice started the A5/1 cracking project with plans to use FPGAs that allow A5/1 to be broken with a rainbow table attack. The system supports multiple algorithms so operators may replace that cipher with a stronger one.

Since 2000, different efforts have been done in order to crack the A5 encryption algorithms. Both A5/1 and A5/2 algorithms are broken, and their cryptanalysis has been considered in the literature. As an example,Karsten Nohl developed a number of rainbow tables (static values which reduce the time needed to carry out an attack) and have found new sources for known plaintext attacks. He said that it is possible to build "a full GSM interceptor...from open-source components" but that they had not done so because of legal concerns. Nohl claimed that he was able to intercept voice and text conversations by impersonating another user to listen to voicemail, make calls, or send text messages using a seven-year-old Motorola cell phone and decryption software available for free online.
New attacks have been observed that take advantage of poor security implementations, architecture, and development for smart phone applications. Some wiretapping and eavesdropping techniques hijack the audio input and output providing an opportunity for a third party to listen in to the conversation.GSM uses General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) for data transmissions like browsing the web. The most commonly deployed GPRS ciphers were publicly broken in 2011.
The researchers revealed flaws in the commonly used GEA/1 and GEA/2 ciphers and published the opensource "gprs decode" software for sniffing GPRS networks. They also noted that some carriers do not encrypt the data (i.e., using GEA/0) in order to detect the use of traffic or protocols they do not like (e.g.,Skype), leaving customers unprotected. GEA/3 seems to remain relatively hard to break and is said to be in use on some more modern networks. If used with USIM to prevent connections to fake base stations and downgrade attacks, users will be protected in the medium term, though migration to 128-bit GEA/4 is still recommended.

Camera
Wireless security cameras are closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras that transmit a video and audio signal to a wireless receiver through a radio band. Many wireless security cameras require at least one cable or wire for power; "wireless" refers to the transmission of video/audio. However, some wireless security cameras are battery-powered, making the cameras truly wireless from top to bottom.

Wireless cameras are proving very popular among modern security consumers due to their low installation costs(there is no need to run expensive video extension cables) and flexible mounting options; wireless cameras can be mounted/installed in locations previously unavailable to standard wired cameras. In addition to the ease of use and convenience of access, wireless security camera allows users to leverage broadband wireless internet to provide seamless video streaming over-internet.

Digital wireless is the transmission of audio and video analog signals encoded as digital packets over high bandwidth radio frequencies.

Advantages include:
Wide transmission range—usually close to 450 feet (open space, clear line of sight between camera and receiver)
High quality video and audio
Two-way communication between the camera and the receiver
Digital signal means you can transmit commands and functions, such as turning lights on and off.
You can connect multiple receivers to one recording device, such as security DVR


Wireless Range
Wireless security cameras function best when there is a clear line of sight between the camera(s) and the receiver. Outdoors, and with clear line of sight, digital wireless cameras typically have a range between 250 to 450 feet. Indoors, the range can be limited to 100 to 150 feet. Cubical walls, drywall, glass, and windows
generally do not degrade wireless signal strength. Brick, concrete floors, and walls degrade signal strength.Trees that are in the line of sight of the wireless camera and receiver may impact signal strength.

The signal range also depends on whether there are competing signals using the same frequency as the camera.For example, signals from cordless phones or routers may affect signal strength. When this happens, the camera image may freeze, or appear "choppy". Typical solution involves locking the channel that wireless router operates on.

NEXT COMING:::PERSONAL COMPUTER,WORKING,ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES,APPLICATIONS,CONCLUSION